Wednesday, April 16, 2008

- Solidarity.




Hudson (1996:122) states that a solidarity concerns with the social distance between how much experience they have shared, how many social characteristics they share (religion, age, region of origin, race, occupation, interest, etc), how far they are prepared to share intimacies, and other factors. Speech we make in everyday usage may also reflect the social relation between the speaker and the addressee.

English speakers use personal names as the clearest linguistic markers of social relation. For example; in the case of name ‘John Smith’, we call ‘John’ if we have high solidarity with him. It will be different if John Smith is a distant superior (our headmaster or boss). In this situation, we may call him ‘Mr. Smith’ or ‘Sir’ and it means that we have low solidarity (unfamiliar) with him. So, the situation can cause the level of the solidarity between people.

The solidarity relationship is the first to be introduced here because it is probably the most important of all social relationships, at least as far as language is concerned. This is because it reflects shared experience, which is necessarily tied to linguistic similarity. People, who have spent all of their life together, sharing the same experiences of language, are bound to be very similar in their language; and conversely, similarity of language is a good (though not infallible) basis for guessing similar experiences (Hudson, 1996:232).

To signal the solidarity between people, we can use address term. In Wardhaugh (1988:258), the notion of address term is illustrated as a making selection in naming someone. People can address a person by his/her title, first name, last name, and nick name or by combination of these or by nothing at all. In English, all combinations mentioned above are possible. For example, in the case of Dr. John Smith; Dr. John Smith himself might also expect Doctor from a patient, Dad from his son, John from his brother, Dear from his wife, and Sir from police officer who stops him if he drives too fast, and he might be rather surprised if any one of these is subtitled for any other, e.g.; “Excuse me, Dear, can I see your license?” from the police officer. Here we can conclude that the address term is the way how we name or address another in the right way.

Further, Wardhaugh (1988:262) assumes that a variety of social factors usually governs our choice of address terms. In a certain society, the choice of addressing someone is sometimes quite clear but in another can be so confusing. It may happen because he or she as a society member should realize his\her social position among the society. Some of the social factors that influence the choice of address terms are age, sex, race, family relationship and occupation.

References:

Hudson, Richard A., 1996. (2nd edition). Sociolinguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Wardhaugh, Ronald, 1988. (3rd edition). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Blackwell.

Tuesday, April 15, 2008

- Politeness.

Politeness is one of the most important aspects of human communication: human being can only exist in peace together if certain basic conventions of politeness are observed. Politeness itself is socially prescribed or determined. Being polite is a good behavior but it does not mean it forces us to always being polite to everyone on every occasion. We may be quite impolite if there is no rule of politeness in society. Implicitly, there are different rules for every society. These differences may appear in the existence of standard of norms and values itselves. Generally, in different society/speech community may have different expression although its function is to express the same thing (Wardhaugh, 267).




As stated above, polite behavior differs from one to another and from one speech community to another. A polite person makes others feel comfortable. Being linguistically polite is often a matter of selecting linguistic forms which express the appropriate degree of social distance of which recognizes relevant status differences (Yagi, http://www.linguistic-online.de). Holmes (2001:268) states that being linguistically polite involves speaking to people appropriately in light of their relationship to you. Being polite involves many linguistic choices that consider the norms and values that exist in social interaction (society). Being polite to another means we need to know our social relationship, social distance and social status with the interlocutor. Geertz (in Wardhaugh, 1988:267) says that it is nearly impossible to say anything (being polite) without indicating the social relationship between the speaker and the listener in terms of status and familiarity.

According to Brown and Levinson (in Hartung, 2001:214), politeness strategies are developed in order to save the hearer’s ‘face’. The term ‘face’ refers to the respect of an individual and maintaining his/her ‘self-esteem’ in public or in private situations. Brown and Levinson’s (in Graiger, http://www.lboro.ac.uk) model of linguistic politeness seems use FTA (Face Threatening Acts) as their politeness strategies. FTA is an illocutionary acts are liable to damage or threaten another person’s face (Brown and Levinson in Leech, 1983:169). This FTA purposes to save the hearer’s face from embarrassments or uncomfortable conditions.

Brown and Levinson, (1987:61 in http://www.lang.ltsn.ac.uk) describe that FTA is needed by human being. These face needs are needed by each participant in normal human society. It has two types of face needs: the ‘positive face needs’ and the ‘negative face needs’. The positive face need is ‘the positive consistent self-image or “personality” (crucially including the desire that this self-image be appreciated and approved of) claimed by interactants’ and the negative face need is the basic claim to territories, personal preserves, rights to non-distraction – i.e. to freedom of action and freedom from imposition.

1. Positive Politeness
Positive politeness attends to a person’s positive face needs. It includes such speech acts as compliments, invitations, and greetings (Holmes, 1995:154). Positive politeness is based on solidarity, and where status difference is reduced. It means that when the solidarity is high (the social distance is to be close) and the status difference (social status) is reduced or decreased, the relation among the speaker and the hearer will be closer and will be nearly equal. Here, they (the speaker and the hearer) need to emphasize their shared of attitudes and values.
Politeness, particularly positive politeness is, too large extent, dependent on ritual which is defined by Brown and Levinson (1990:43) as ‘repetitive or pre-patterned behavior’. It is interpersonal rituals, primordial and sustains the sacred nature of human personality. The human personality is sacred thing; one dare not violate it nor infringe its bounds, while at the same time the greatest good is in communion with others (Durkheim in Brown and Levinson, 1990:44).

This positive politeness appears when a boss suggests that a subordinate be permitted to use first name (FN) to him/her. This is appositive politeness move, expressing solidarity and minimizing status differences. Shifts to more informal style using slangs and swear words will function similarly as an expression of positive politeness.

2. Negative Politeness
Negative politeness expresses respect and consideration (Holmes, 1995:154). Negative politeness attends to a person’s negative face needs such as saying something indirectly and saying apologies. This will pay the hearer’s respect and can be determined that the speaker avoids intruding on them, for example: (Adapted from JRR Tolkien’s novel ‘The Lord of the Rings’ part three: The Return of the King, 1966:15)
‘Hail, Lord and Steward of Minas Tirith, Denethor son of Ecthelion! I am come with counsel and tidings in this dark hour.’


The example above expresses negative politeness. The speaker in the dialogue greets his hearer by all of his title before his name itself. The speaker also uses the formal words ‘counsel’ instead advice and ‘tidings’ instead news. The usages of this expression indicate the social distance and status difference between the speaker and the hearer is far. Negative politeness express the speaker’s conversation to be appropriately in terms of social distance and respecting status differences with the interlocutors. Using title + last name (TLN) on your superiors, and to older people that you do not know well, are further examples of the expression of negative politeness.

References:

Holmes, Janet, 1995. Women, Men, and Politeness. Essex: Pearson Education.

Holmes, Janet, 2001. (2nd edition). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Essex: Pearson Education.

Wardhaugh, Ronald, 1988. (3rd edition). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Blackwell.

http://www.linguistik-online.de/20_04/rash.html

http://www.lboro.ac.uk/departments/ea/politeness/

http://www.lang.ltsn.ac.uk/resources/goodpractice/

- Some Differences between Indonesian and English

This article trise ti describe the differences between indonesian and english. These differences can make the indonesian learners get difficulties in learning English. The differences are also predicted to be difficult things for the English learners who learn Indonesian. The differences between Indonesian and English are as follows:




1. Article
In Indonesian, the role of articles is not so important. However, in English, an article is very important because it is grammatical requirement.

For example: Edy  membeli kamus. => Edy  bought a dictionary.

2. Noun
In Indonesian, the plural form is made by reduplicating the singular form, for examples, buku (singular) --> buku-buku (plural), rumah (singular) --> rumah-rumah (plural). In English, the plural form is made by adding –s, for example, boy (singular) --> boys (plural),  girl (singular) --> girls (plural) , and word (singular) --> words (plural).

3. Pronoun
In Indonesian, the singular third person, either male or female, has the same term, i.e. dia. In English, the third person is distinguished based on the sex. The singular third person for male is he, and for female is she.

Another difference is related to the position of the pronoun in a sentence. In Indonesian, the pronoun does not change although the position changes. For example: Saya mempunyai dua mobil  (saya = subject); Wanita itu teman saya (saya = possessive adjective); Orang itu menanyai saya (saya =object).

In English, the pronoun changes if the position changes. For examples: I hate Monday (I = subject); She borrowed my book (my = possessive adjective); The boy called me (me = object).

4. Tense Marker
Indonesian does not have tense marker as English does. English has both time adverb and tense. On the other hand, Indonesian has only the time adverbs but not the tenses. Moreover, in Indonesian, the form of the verb does not change although the time changes. For example: Saya pergi tiap hari (present tense) and Saya pergi kemarin. (past tense);  go everyday.(present tense) and went yesteday. (past tense).

5. Auxiliaries and Modals
An auxiliary has to agree to the subject that helps the main verb to make a passive construction and depends heavily on tenses. It also helps form a close question or helps form compound tenses.
Modals are used to convey shades of meaning and are dependent neither on nor in concord with their subject and are therefore free from tense aspect.

For examples: Our friends should be here in a few minutes (should means diharapkan); Our friend must be here in a few minutes (must means harus); Our friends ought to be here in a few minutes (ought to means seharusnya).

When the translator uses the auxiliaries and modals in the question tags, problems will come out as the tag pattern of English and Indonesian are not similar. In English question tags are formed depending on the tense and auxiliary verbs, but in Indonesian question tags are formed by adding the word bukan or kan? for example, He is clever, isn’t he? = Dia pandai, bukan/kan? , He goes, doesn’t he? = Dia pergi bukan/kan?

6. Word Order
In Indonesian, modifier is placed after noun head; for example, rumah besar. On the contrary, in English, modifier comes first before noun, for example, big house.

The Importance of Reading Skill

Everybody knows that English is widely employed in vast parts of the world for different purposes and fields. Here, English functions are to connect dissimilar culture, social and economic background, ways of life and religion. In other words, the differences require and internationally accepted bridge of universal and acceptable language to enable people to have agreement to solve problem, to exchange knowledge, science and information. The history then places English as the most common international communication device. English is one of the important foreign languages needed by Indonesian society. It has been taught in our school for a number of years. The aim of learning English is to make  us easier to communicate with other people from other countries. This is  the reason why Indonesian government places English as the first foreign language than other languages such as French, Chinese, German and Arabic.
    
Mastering English means holding the key for international communication success. For the sake of creating capable people who will take parts in any kinds of international relationship, people should be educated, trained properly and after that measured for their competence of having interaction in English. The consequence is that it is principal to provide them with good English learning strategy and instrument to measure the student level. In daily communication and language testing, difficulties often come up when students can not understand. Some of the language element which then bring problems in determining the content of the message. Mentioned impediments have to be analyzed to clarify what types of problem are found. Sharply, English learning process should be followed by the appropriate language testing to measure its efficiency.

It is stated that the students’ ability in finding out the content of the message needs receptive skills. Students who read a lot seem to acquire English better than those who do not. In other words, one of the main advantages of reading activity for students is that activities will improve their general English proficiency level. Especially for reading comprehension, the more frequents of reading language elements, the better the learners reading skill will be. To sum up, students reading ability derives from the years of process.

The explanation above indicated that reading ability is a vital skill. It is a basic tool to supports one’s success as a student. As we know, reading comprehension is one of the fundamental language skills through which people get in the large portion of their education, their information, their understanding of human affairs of the world. Through the normal course, reading comprehension is used as much as writing. Reading plays critical role in communication. That is the reason why reading becomes a part of language testing. In other words, reading is not only reading, but understanding and trying to find out information from the reading text is an important role.