- Errors Analysis: - THEORETICAL APPROACH AND FRAMEWORK

This is the theoretical approach and framework of the language research entitiled AN ANALYSIS OF GRAMMATICAL ERRORS IN BILINGUAL TRANSLATION MADE BY THE FOURTH SEMESTER STUDENTS OF ENGLISH LETTERS DEPARTMENT OF AHMAD DAHLAN UNIVERSITY IN 2006-2007 ACADEMIC YEAR:

To provide the underlying theories on the study, this chapter presents the theoretical background, which consists of theoretical approach and framework. The discussion is divided into eight sections, namely: theoretical approach, bilingualism, translation, meaning, errors, grammar, some differences between Indonesian and English, and grammatical errors in bilingual translation.

A. Theoretical Approach
Grammar refers to the structure of language, and each language can be said to have its own distinct grammar. The subfields of contemporary grammar are phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. In this research, grammar has close relationship with the syntactic analysis. In accordance with the explanation above, it needs further to be explained about the use of syntactic analysis dealing with grammar.
The word syntactic comes from the word syntax (“Syntax”, 2006: par.1) that means the grammatical arrangement of words in sentences. Meanwhile, Webster (2000:1453) states that syntax is the arrangement of and relationships among words, phrases, and clauses forming sentences.
Yerkes (1989:1443) says that syntax is the study of the rules to form or to make grammatical sentence in a language or the study of pattern of sentences and phrase formation from words. Hornby (1995:1212) defines syntax as the rules of grammar for the arrangement of words into phrases and of phrases into sentences.
According to House and Harman (1950:2001), syntactic analysis is a process of splitting up a sentence into its grammatical elements which is also followed by identifying or classifying those elements grammatically in both form and function.
The purpose of syntactic analysis is to determine the structure of the input text. This structure consists of a hierarchy of phrases, the smallest of which are the basic symbols and the largest of which is the sentence.
In relation with the explanation above, this study tells about the use of syntactic analysis related with grammar in the error analysis, so it is suitable for this study to apply the syntactic approach as its theoretical approach.

B. Bilingualism
1. Definition of Bilingual
Haugen says that someone can be said as bilingual if he or she knows two languages. Mackey states that bilingual is a person who speaks two languages by turns (in Pranowo, 1996:8). According to Hornby (1995:106), bilingual is a person who is able to speak two languages equally well. Then, in Columbia Encyclopedia (“Bilingualism”, 2004: par.1), some bilinguals are persons who have ability to use two languages.
In studying English as the second language, bilinguals sometimes exhibit language transfer, code-switching, code-mixing, or interference from one language to the other in the phonological, grammatical, lexical, and semantic system.
2. Classifications of Bilingualism
Weinreich (in Pranowo, 1996:10) states that there are three types of bilingualism, namely:
a. Compound Bilingualism
For compound bilinguals, words and phrases in different languages are the same concepts. That means, ‘buku’ and ‘book’ are two words for the same concept for an Indonesian-English speaker of this type. Bilingual speakers have a single concept of meaning that is related to the two different words.
b. Coordinate Bilingualism
For coordinate bilinguals, words and phrases in the speaker's mind are all related to their own unique concepts. It means a bilingual speaker of this type has different associations for ‘buku’ and for 'book'. In these individuals, one language, usually the first language (L1) is more dominant than the other, and the L1 may be used to think through the second language (L2). These speakers are known to use very different intonation and pronunciation features, and sometimes assert the feeling of having different personalities attached to each of their languages.
c. Sub-ordinate Bilingualism
Sub-ordinate bilingual is typical of beginning second language learners. The concept leads, not to the L2 word directly, but to L2 word via the L1 word (in Wikipedia, “Bilingualism”, 2007: par.4).
According to Arsenan (ibid: 11), bilingualism is distinguished into two. Those are:
(a) Productive / Active / Symmetrical Bilingualism, which is the use of two languages in all aspects of language skill.
(b) Receptive / Passive / Asymmetrical Bilingualism, which is the use of two languages limited only in reading skill.

Linguistic Studies: THEORETICAL APPROACH AND FRAMEWORK

In language research theoretical approach and framework are important. This is the example of Theoretical approach and framework off language research on Pragmatic study:

THEORETICAL APPROACH AND FRAMEWORK

In this chapter, the researcher wants to describe theoretical approach and theoretical framework. In theoretical approach the writer will talk about the approach that is used in this research, namely pragmatic approach. Theoretical frame work contains theories that can support the research.
According to Ritzer (1993:31), theoretical framework is a base in strengthening the discussion which the writer explains. The writer explains the definition of theory which is a set of ideas useful in explaining a broad range of phenomena. Theories typically have a set of key or central term, which often serve as the basic framework of the theory. In theoretical framework the writer will talk about a drama that is used in this research, politeness, and of course talk about face-threatening acts.

A. Theoretical Approach
According to Wilson (1948), language is just a system of symbols which people have created for the elaboration of that new space-time world of mind to which he was called by the “world-spirit” when the world emerged from the preconscious to the conscious cycle of the self-development.
Actually, people use language to make communication in their daily lives. When people want to speak to another, it means that she/he wants to communicate something to the hearer and the hearer should not only recognize the meaning of the utterance but also the intention of the speaker. In order to understand the meaning of the speaker, the hearer should relate the utterance with the context following the production of the utterance since utterances cannot be separated from their context. And the branch of linguistics that studies language and its context is called pragmatics.
Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication. It means that any relationship between the sentences and the context ad the situation which the conversation happen. According to Mey (1993: 4-5), the term of pragmatics is used only because people cannot explain it using the ‘normal’ explanation of linguistics (here the semantics of language). Whenever people cannot explain a phenomenon in language using regular, accepted linguistic theories, then people must have resource to something else, something that is supposedly as undefined as it is tangible, namely pragmatics.
As has been indicated above, the pragmatic function of language is to make an effective use of language in communication. There is an activity of the participants to intend the message and to interpret the message. From pragmatics point of view, to intend at to interpret the messages are the problem for the speakers and the hearers to solve. Functionally, language has various purposes such as greeting, criticizing, complaining, commanding, and joking. These purposes are the ways that participants express the idea, feelings, and thoughts. These must certainly consist of meaning, which can be implied. Pragmatics is one of the studies to explore it.
In analyzing Face-Threatening Acts used in Macbeth, the researcher uses the pragmatic approach because it studies the language in relation to the society and happening events about social life at the time when the work was made. Leech (1996: 6) states that pragmatics is the study of meaning in relation to speech situation. Furthermore, Levinson (1983:5-9) states that the definitions of pragmatics are 1) Pragmatics is the study of the principles that will account or why a certain set of sentences is anomalous, or not possible utterances, 2) Pragmatics is the study of those relations between the language and the context that are grammaticalized or encoded in the structure of language, 3) Pragmatics is the study of all those aspects of meaning not captured in semantic theory.
The lack of a clear consensus appears in the way that not two published accounts list the same categories of pragmatics in quite the same order. But among the things the people should know about are:
a) Speech act theory
b) Conversational Implicature
c) The Cooperative principle
d) Conversational maxims
e) Politeness
f) Etc.




B. Theoretical Framework

Theoretical framework is in the other page of this blog